Marketing textbook, chapter 3

In marketing literature, emotions are usually defined as more or less intense psychological arousal that is experienced as pleasant or unpleasant and more or less consciously. In psychological literature, however, there are many different approaches and definitions, some of which are extremely controversial (see Strongman, 2003).

Recently, these different perspectives have been clarified by contributions from brain research as a collective term for the study of the central nervous system by biology, neuropsychology, neurophysiology, neurology and psychiatry. The medical disciplines in particular make an important contribution in this context: they deal with people with brain diseases or injuries, examine the damaged areas of the brain using imaging techniques (e.g. computer tomography) and establish a link between this data and the behavioural abnormalities of these people. This gradually produces a detailed picture of the (psychological) functions of the individual areas of the brain and thus also an improved knowledge of the nature and functions of emotions.

In neuropsychology, emotions are considered to be assessment mechanisms with which the body reacts to positive and negative external (e.g. fire) and internal (e.g. thoughts) stimuli or events with specific behavioural dispositions (e.g. flight reflex). Emotions can relate to genetically anchored (e.g. fast-moving objects) and learnt stimuli (e.g. food aversions). Furthermore, emotions are characterised by the fact that stimuli are initially assessed unconsciously. Only the signals that are significant for the organism (e.g. new, pleasant, threatening) are preferentially processed and lead to corresponding behavioural dispositions, which are accompanied by a change in the body's state (e.g. excitement, tingling in the stomach, sweating). We only consciously perceive these physiological changes. They are referred to as feelings. An emotion therefore refers to the evaluation of external and internal stimuli, and the feeling refers to the perception and experience of physical changes that are triggered by the emotional system (see Damasio, 2003, p. 103 ff.; Hamm, 2012, p. 628; LeDoux, 2003, p. 288 f.). It can therefore be said that emotions turn an event into an experience.

From the perspective of neuropsychology, emotions can be defined as follows: Emotions are complex, automatic and unconscious sequences of neuronal processes with which the organism reacts to internal and external stimuli that are important to it and which can trigger specific behavioural repertoires that serve the well-being and continued existence of the organism. Important areas of the brain in which emotions are processed link the processing of sensory stimuli with the triggering of emotion-specific bodily states. Thanks to this hardwiring, the brain is able to judge a stimulus in a fraction of a second and react directly and without thinking, especially to threats. Some of these areas also have positive reinforcing properties that give the stimuli a rewarding character, taking into account any previous positive experiences (see Adolphs/Ackermann, 2012, p. 638).

From a neuropsychological perspective, the definition of emotion commonly used in marketing therefore tends to focus on the emotional state of the organism (arousal) and does not differentiate between unconscious, stimulus-directed emotion and consciously perceptible, body-directed feeling (pleasant or unpleasant experience). Although the prevailing definition in marketing is not wrong, it says nothing about the nature, function and origin of an emotion. However, knowing this is important for measuring and influencing emotions in consumers.

The fact that the very recent neuropsychological understanding of emotions has not yet established itself in the marketing literature may have to do with the far-reaching consequences for many other psychological constructs (e.g. learning, attitude, involvement). If one follows the neuropsychological understanding of emotions as a judgement mechanism, this would mean that attitudes (as a solidified evaluation of stimuli), preferences (as a preference for an alternative), involvement (as an emotion-driven willingness to engage more or less intensively with an object of interest) and values (as an idea of what is desirable) are also purely emotionally conditioned and are accompanied or supported to a greater or lesser extent by cognitions (thoughts, memories). Learning is also influenced emotionally, as the emotional reward system is primarily activated by new, interesting and positive stimuli and learning means nothing other than memorising new stimuli (cf. Spitzer, 2003, p. 81 ff.). Even decision-making behaviour is purely emotional. The thoughts and cognitions that accompany decisions only serve to weigh up the options. The decision itself is made exclusively by the emotions associated with the deliberations (Roth, 2007, pp. 118, 147, 197).

Cognitions can therefore be described as the »counselling staff« of emotions. The rational decision-maker („homo oeconomicus“) familiar from business and economics becomes obsolete with this realisation and scoring systems, for example, would also have to be reinterpreted against this background. The opinion that decisions are purely rational can be explained by the fact that emotions and cognitions are inextricably linked in everyday experience. For example, memories, thoughts about the consequences and considerations are always involved in important purchasing decisions; but »only« involved. The decision is made by the emotions associated with the memories and thoughts. This division of tasks between decisive emotions and deliberative cognitions was first discovered in neurological research with patients in whom emotional and cognitive brain areas were separated from each other, e.g. as a result of an accident (cf. LeDoux, 2003, p. 318 ff.).

As it is the task of textbooks to convey reliable knowledge and the understanding of emotions is only gradually changing due to current research, this book follows the classic and generally accepted definition of emotions. This scientific excursus is intended to show which path emotion-related research into consumer behaviour will take in the future.

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Sources:

• Adolphs, R.: Physiology and anatomy of emotions; in: Karnath, H.-O./Thier, P. (eds.): Cognitive Neuroscience, 3rd edition, Heidelberg 2012, pp. 635-643.
• Damasio, A.: The Spinoza Effect. How feelings determine our lives, Munich 2003.
• Hamm, A. O.: Psychology of emotions; in: Karnath, H.-O./Thier, P. (eds.): Cognitive Neuroscience, 3rd edition, Heidelberg 2012, pp. 627-634.
• LeDoux, J.: The web of emotions. Wie Emotionen entstehen, 2nd edition, Munich 2003.
• Roth, G.: Personality, decision and behaviour. Why it is so difficult to change yourself and others, Stuttgart 2007.
• Spitzer, M.: Nervensache. Perspectives on Mind, Brain and Society, Stuttgart/New York 2003. Strongman, K. T.: The Psychology of Emotion. From Everyday Life to Theory, Chichester et al. 2003.